In general, pH-sensitive colorants such as phenolphthalein are applied on freshly split surfaces of building structures to determine the state of carbonation. For years, it has been known that the aerosols of phenolphthalein are suspected of being carcinogenic. Hence, more work has currently being done on alternative indicators for the use in research and the use on construction sites. Over the past years, mainly pH indicators from other research areas and natural dyes were investigated for their usability to cementitious systems. This paper presents the experimental results of using phenolphthalein solution bound in agar-agar gel. This gel-bound indicator allows the future use of the already known phenolphthalein dye without the health hazards for the user. To demonstrate the flexibility of the gel-bound colorant, different application forms of the indicator were carried out and assessed. In addition, the results obtained by the different methods were statistically evaluated to ensure validity. The accuracy of the results was confirmed by thermogravimetric analysis and IR spectroscopic studies as reference methods. It has also succeeded to demonstrate the comparability of the results achieved by the gel-bound colorant with the results of the common sprayed application method. As an additional gain in knowledge, comparative results of indicator tests, TGA analysis, and FTIR investigation are shown.
| Published in | American Journal of Civil Engineering (Volume 10, Issue 3) |
| DOI | 10.11648/j.ajce.20221003.16 |
| Page(s) | 135-144 |
| Creative Commons |
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited. |
| Copyright |
Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Science Publishing Group |
Concrete Carbonation, Gel-bound Colorants, pH Indicator, Thermal Gravimetric Analysis, FTIR-ATR Measurements
| [1] | NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), Earth System Research Laboratory, Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. Available online: https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ (accessed on 01.07.2021). |
| [2] | Gapminder.com, Available online: https://www.gapminder.org/tools/#$state$time$value=2014;&marker$size$which=co2_emissions_tonnes_per_person&domainMin:null&domainMax:null&spaceRef:null;;;&chart-type=bubbles |
| [3] | A. Leemann, F. Moro, Carbonation of concrete: the role of CO2 concentration, relative humidity and CO2 buffer capacity, Material and Structures (2017) 50: 30. |
| [4] | A. Leemann, P. Nygaard, J. Kaufmann, R. Loser, Relation between carbonation resistance, mix design and exposure of mortar and concrete, Cement and Concrete Composition 62 (2015) 33-43. |
| [5] | A. Morandeau, M. Thiéry, P. Dangla, Investigation of the carbonation mechanism of CH and C-S-H in terms of kinetics, microstructure changes and moisture properties, Cement and Concrete Research 56 (2014) 153-170. |
| [6] | M. Fernández Bertos, S. J. R. Simons, C. D. Hills, P. J. Carey, A review of accelerated carbonation technology in the treatment of cement-based materials and sequestration of CO2, Journal of Hazardous Materials B112 (2004) 193-205. |
| [7] | S. O. Ekolu, A review on effects of curing, sheltering, and CO2 concentration upon natural carbonation of concrete, Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 306-320. |
| [8] | B. Šavija, M. Lukovic, Carbonation of cement paste: Understanding, challenges, and opportunities, Construction and Building Materials 117 (2016) 285-301. |
| [9] | M. Castellote, L. Fernandez, C. Andrade, C. Alonso, Chemical changes and phase analysis of OPC pastes carbonated at different CO2 concentrations, Materials and Structures 42 (2009) 515-525. |
| [10] | H. Cui, W. Tang, W. Liu, Z. Dong, F. Xing, Experimental study on effects of CO2 concentrations on concrete carbonation and diffusion mechanisms, Construction and Building Materials 93 (2015) 522-527. |
| [11] | B. Beverskog, I. Puigdomenech, REVISED POURBAIX DIAGRAMs FOR IRON AT 25-300°C, Corrosion science Vol. 38 No. 12 (1996) 2121-2135. |
| [12] | R. B. Figueira, Electrochemical Sensors for Monitoring the Corrosion Conditions of Reinforced Concrete Structures: A Review, Applied Science 7 (2017) 1157. |
| [13] | M. Stefanoni, U. Angst, B. Elsener, Corrosion rate of carbon steel in carbonated concrete – A critical review, Cement and Concrete Composition 103 (2018) 35-48. |
| [14] | DIN EN 13295:2004-08, Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures – Test methods – Determination of resistance to carbonation (2004). |
| [15] | DIN CEN/TS 12390-10:2007, Testing hardened concrete – Part 10: Determination of the relative carbonation resistance of concrete (2007). |
| [16] | DIN EN 14630:2007-01, Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures – Test methods – Determination of carbonation depth in hardened concrete by the phenolphthalein method (2007). |
| [17] | E DIN EN 12390-10:2017-04, Testing hardened concrete – Part 10: Determination of the carbonation resistance of concrete at atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide; English version: prEN 12390-10: 2017. |
| [18] | S. Chinchón-Payá, C. Andrade, S. Chinchón, Indicator of carbonation front in concrete as substitute to phenolphthalein, Cement and Concrete Research 82 (2016) 87-91. |
| [19] | N. Vogler, M. Lindemann, P. Drabetzki, H.-C. Kühne, Alternative pH-indicators for determination of carbonation depth on cement-based concretes, Cement and Concrete Composites 109 (2020) 103565. |
| [20] | T. Okonkwo, J. Nnaemeka, Hibiscus sabdariffa anthocyanidins: a potential two-colour end-point indicator in acid-base and complexometric titrations, International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research Vol. 4 Issue 3 Article 021 (2010). |
| [21] | J. Lehmann, A. Burkert and J. Mietz, Investigations proofing the passive layer stability of stainless steels, Materials and Corrosion, 67, No. 1 (2016). |
| [22] | J. Lehmann, A. Burkert, U.-M. Steinhoff, German Patent Nr. DE 10 2010 037 775, (2014). |
| [23] | K. Alba, V. Kontogiorgos, Seaweed Polysaccharides (Agar, Alginate Carrageenan), Encyclopedia of Food Chemistry. (pp. 240-250) Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.21587-4 (2018). |
| [24] | V. Normand, D. L. Lootens, E. Amici, K. P. Plucknett, P. Aymard, New insight into agarose gel mechanical properties. Biomacromolecules 1 (2000) 730–738. |
| [25] | S. J. Karcher, Molecular Biology - A Project Approach, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-397720-5, (1995). |
| [26] | DIN EN 1766, Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures- Test methods- Reference concretes for testing (2017). |
| [27] | M. Auroya, S. Poyeta, P. Le Bescopa, J.-M. Torrentib, T. Charpentierc, M. Moskurac, X. Bourbond, Comparison between natural and accelerated carbonation (3% CO2): Impact on mineralogy, microstructure, water retention and cracking, Cement and Concrete Research 109 (2018) 64–80. |
| [28] | N. Hyvert, A. Sellier, F. Duprat a, P. Rougeau, P. Francisco, Dependency of C–S–H carbonation rate on CO2 pressure to explain transition from accelerated tests to natural carbonation, Cement and Concrete Research 40 (2010) 1582–1589. |
| [29] | M. A. Sanjuan, C. Andrade, M. Cheyrezy, Concrete carbonation tests in natural and accelerated conditions, Advances in Cement Research 15-4 (2003) 171–180. |
| [30] | R. K. Dhir, P. C. Hewlett, Y. N. Chan, Near-surface characteristics of concrete: prediction of carbonation resistance, Magazine of Concrete Research 41, No. 148 (1989) 137–143. |
| [31] | D. Russell, P. A. M. Basheer, G. I. B. Rankin and A. E. Long, Effect of relative humidity and air permeability on prediction of the rate of carbonation of concrete, Structures & Buildings 146 Issue 3 (2001) 319-326. |
| [32] | M. Elsalamawy, A. R. Mohamed, E. M. Kamal, The role of relative humidity and cement type on carbonation resistance of concrete, Alexandria Engineering Journal 58 (2019) 1257–1264. |
| [33] | K. Scrivener, R. Snellings, B. Lothenbach, A Practical Guide to Microstructural Analysis of Cementitious Materials, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group, ISBN 13:978-1-4987-3865-1, Boca Raton, (2016). |
| [34] | N. Vogler, P. Drabetzki, M. Lindemann, H. C. Kühne, Description of the concrete carbonation process with adjusted depth resolved thermogravimetric analysis, Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-021-10966-1 |
| [35] | Groves GW, Brough A, Richardson IG, Dobsont CM. Progressive Changes in the Structure of Hardened C3S Cement Pastes due to Carbonation, Journal of the American Ceramic Society 74-11 (1991) 2891-2896. |
| [36] | I. Galan, F. P. Glasser, D. Baza, C. Andrade, Assessment of the protective effect of carbonation on portlandite crystals, Cement and Concrete Research 74 (2015) 68-77. |
| [37] | A. Hidalgo, C. Domingo, C. Garcia, S. Petit, C. Andrade, C. Alonso, Microstructural changes induced in Portland cement-based materials due to natural and supercritical carbonation, Journal of Materials Science 43 (2008), 3101-3111. |
| [38] | K. Garbev, G. Beuchle, U. Schweike, D. Merz, O. Dregert, P. Stemmermann, Preparation of a Novel Cementitious Material from Hydrothermally Synthesized C–S–H Phases, Journal of the American Ceramic Society 97-7 (2014) 2298–2307. |
| [39] | M. Chollet, M. Horgnies, Analyses of the surfaces of concrete by Raman and FT-IR spectroscopies: comparative study of hardened samples after demoulding and after organic post-treatment, Surface and Interface Analysis 43 (2011) 714–725. |
| [40] | R. Ylmén, U. Jäglid, B. t-M. Steenari, I. Panas, Early hydration and setting of Portland cement monitored by IR, SEM and Vicat techniques, Cement and Concrete Research 39 (2009) 433–439. |
| [41] | R. B. Perkins, C. D. Palmer, Solubility of ettringite (Ca6[Al(OH)6]2(SO4)3 z 26H2O) at 5–75°C, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta Vol. 63 No. 13/14 (1999) 1969–1980. |
| [42] | L. Yuke, Y. Zhengmao, W. Shuixan, X. Cheng, Influence of synthesis methods on ettringite dehydration, Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 135 (2019) 2031–2038. |
| [43] | I. García Lodeiro, D. E. Macphee, A. Palomo, A. Fernández-Jiménez, Effect of alkalis on fresh C–S–H gels. FTIR analysis, Cement and Concrete Research 39 (2009) 147–153. |
| [44] | DIN EN 197-1:2011-11, Cement – Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements. |
| [45] | C.-F. Chang, J.-W. Chen, The experimental investigation of concrete carbonation depth, Cement and Concrete Research 36 (2006) 1760–1767. |
| [46] | J. Kronemann, N. Vogler, J. Lehmann, T. Bohlmann, German Patent Nr. DE 10 2017 100 746 (2017). |
APA Style
Nico Vogler, Jens Lehmann, Tatjana Bohlmann, Jens Kronemann. (2022). Gel-bound Colourants as a Substitute for the Sprayed Application of pH-Indicator Solution. American Journal of Civil Engineering, 10(3), 135-144. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20221003.16
ACS Style
Nico Vogler; Jens Lehmann; Tatjana Bohlmann; Jens Kronemann. Gel-bound Colourants as a Substitute for the Sprayed Application of pH-Indicator Solution. Am. J. Civ. Eng. 2022, 10(3), 135-144. doi: 10.11648/j.ajce.20221003.16
Share This Article
Twitter
Linked In
Facebook
Copy
Download@article{10.11648/j.ajce.20221003.16,
author = {Nico Vogler and Jens Lehmann and Tatjana Bohlmann and Jens Kronemann},
title = {Gel-bound Colourants as a Substitute for the Sprayed Application of pH-Indicator Solution},
journal = {American Journal of Civil Engineering},
volume = {10},
number = {3},
pages = {135-144},
doi = {10.11648/j.ajce.20221003.16},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20221003.16},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajce.20221003.16},
abstract = {In general, pH-sensitive colorants such as phenolphthalein are applied on freshly split surfaces of building structures to determine the state of carbonation. For years, it has been known that the aerosols of phenolphthalein are suspected of being carcinogenic. Hence, more work has currently being done on alternative indicators for the use in research and the use on construction sites. Over the past years, mainly pH indicators from other research areas and natural dyes were investigated for their usability to cementitious systems. This paper presents the experimental results of using phenolphthalein solution bound in agar-agar gel. This gel-bound indicator allows the future use of the already known phenolphthalein dye without the health hazards for the user. To demonstrate the flexibility of the gel-bound colorant, different application forms of the indicator were carried out and assessed. In addition, the results obtained by the different methods were statistically evaluated to ensure validity. The accuracy of the results was confirmed by thermogravimetric analysis and IR spectroscopic studies as reference methods. It has also succeeded to demonstrate the comparability of the results achieved by the gel-bound colorant with the results of the common sprayed application method. As an additional gain in knowledge, comparative results of indicator tests, TGA analysis, and FTIR investigation are shown.},
year = {2022}
}
TY - JOUR T1 - Gel-bound Colourants as a Substitute for the Sprayed Application of pH-Indicator Solution AU - Nico Vogler AU - Jens Lehmann AU - Tatjana Bohlmann AU - Jens Kronemann Y1 - 2022/06/27 PY - 2022 N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20221003.16 DO - 10.11648/j.ajce.20221003.16 T2 - American Journal of Civil Engineering JF - American Journal of Civil Engineering JO - American Journal of Civil Engineering SP - 135 EP - 144 PB - Science Publishing Group SN - 2330-8737 UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20221003.16 AB - In general, pH-sensitive colorants such as phenolphthalein are applied on freshly split surfaces of building structures to determine the state of carbonation. For years, it has been known that the aerosols of phenolphthalein are suspected of being carcinogenic. Hence, more work has currently being done on alternative indicators for the use in research and the use on construction sites. Over the past years, mainly pH indicators from other research areas and natural dyes were investigated for their usability to cementitious systems. This paper presents the experimental results of using phenolphthalein solution bound in agar-agar gel. This gel-bound indicator allows the future use of the already known phenolphthalein dye without the health hazards for the user. To demonstrate the flexibility of the gel-bound colorant, different application forms of the indicator were carried out and assessed. In addition, the results obtained by the different methods were statistically evaluated to ensure validity. The accuracy of the results was confirmed by thermogravimetric analysis and IR spectroscopic studies as reference methods. It has also succeeded to demonstrate the comparability of the results achieved by the gel-bound colorant with the results of the common sprayed application method. As an additional gain in knowledge, comparative results of indicator tests, TGA analysis, and FTIR investigation are shown. VL - 10 IS - 3 ER -
Email: